In 1835 the fledgling United States was faced with a major Indian rising in Florida. Consistent ill-treatment of the Seminoles and consistent encroachment of their lands created a volatile situation. Only a handful of soldiers were on hand to contain a rising, and the military commander in the Florida Territories considered his main outpost was vulnerable to attack. He then gave one of the most bizarre orders in American military history. Two companies were ordered to come to his rescue, marching through a hundred miles of hostile territory, and through an area where the Seminoles were reported to be massing. The result was Dade's last stand, a battle which would rank as one of the worst defeats the United States Army suffered at the hands of the Native American Indian.
The Seminoles
The Seminoles were not the original inhabitants of Florida, but by the 18th century, the native Calusa and Timucua Indians were all but extinct. The Seminoles came from the same cultural group as the south-eastern tribes, linked by a common Muskogee language. By the time the first Europeans arrived in the region during the early 16th century, the ancestors of the Seminoles numbered around 200,000, and their name probably derived from the Spanish term cimmarone (free native). As white settlers moved into Georgia in the 18th century, the Seminoles moved south into the Florida peninsula, where they were joined by runaway slaves and other renegades.
General Andrew Jackson's Creek War (1813) isolated the Seminoles from the rest of the Creek Confederacy, while increasing numbers of settlers established themselves in northern Florida. By the time Jackson was appointed Governor of the Florida Territory in 1821, it was estimated that there were around 5,000 Seminoles in the Florida peninsula, but by 1835 these numbers had declined by almost half.
During the months before hostilities began, the Seminoles moved out of their reservation to a place of refuge known as the Great Swamp. This was a trackless area of swamp, lake and woodland which followed the lower course of the Wathahoochie River. The Seminoles made camp on 'hammocks', islands of raised land surrounded by water. It was almost impossible for the army to find their way through the swamps, and with their families safe, the Seminole warriors were free to fight their war of survival. Although unused to operating as a joint force, the Seminoles were almost all ideal combatants for the guerrilla war they planned to wage, and in 1835, their chiefs could draw on a force of over 600 armed warriors.
Background
Although the periods of British and Spanish rule in Florida had little effect on the Seminoles, the incorporation of the territory into the fledgling United States of America was catastrophic for them. In 1817, General Andrew Jackson crossed the frontier from Georgia into Spanish Florida and campaigned against the Seminoles in the Florida 'panhandle' (the north-west of the state). This First Seminole War (1817—19) led to the migration of the northern Seminoles further south, and forced Spain to cede the Florida Territory to the United States (1821). Early settlers complained that the Seminoles stole their cattle and harboured slaves, and in 1823 the new Governor, William Duval, held a meeting with the Seminole chiefs to end the acrimony. At the Treaty of Moultrie Creek (1823) the Seminoles agreed to withdraw to a reservation in the southern interior of the peninsula, and in return would be protected from further incursions. Many felt they had been pushed too far, but the treaty was signed, and the Seminoles moved to their new reservation. Within a year, clashes between the Seminoles and the settlers began anew.
In 1828 Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, whereby the Seminoles would be transported to new reservations in Oklahoma. The Indian Agent in the Territory met with Seminole chiefs, who agreed to inspect these new lands. The trip was a sham, and the chiefs were coerced into signing an agreement to move their people. The Seminole nation was split between 'moderates' and 'hard-liners', the former led by Chief Micanopy and the latter by the charismatic young warrior Osceola. Several meetings were held in 1834—5 between the Seminoles and Wiley Thompson, the new Indian Agent. While some moderates agreed to travel to Oklahoma, Osceola rallied the hard-liners and by late 1835 he was supported by most prominent Seminole leaders, while Micanopy adopted a position of neutrality. The new moderate leader became Chief 'Charley' Emathla, and when Osceola killed him, the remaining moderates fled to the protection of Fort Brooke under the leadership of Holata Emathla. The Seminoles were now set on confrontation, and any incident could set off the conflict. In June, settlers attacked a Seminole hunting party, who retaliated by killing an army messenger, Private Dalton. Militiamen were raised to protect white settlements north of Fort King, and a skirmish with a militia column in late December marked the first real bloodshed in the war. General Clinch at Fort King felt he was about to be attacked, so he requested reinforcements from both Washington and the other Florida outposts. This set into motion the events which would lead to a full confrontation.
The Military Situation
In December 1835, the American military presence in the Florida Territory was not sufficient to deal with a full-scale uprising. Two forts lay on the edges of the Seminole reservation. To the north, Fort King (Ocala) defended the band of white settlers around Micanopy (Gainesville). Fort Brooke (Tampa) lay in the north-eastern corner of Tampa Bay, and maintained intermittent sea communications with both the garrisons at Key West and Fort Pickens (Pensacola). Fort Marion (St. Augustine) protected the settlements on the north-eastern seaboard, and along the St. Johns River. At that time only two roads existed in Florida; one from Pensacola to St. Augustine, and another from Fort Brooke to Fort King, then north to Micanopy.
The terrain was inhospitable, with pine 'barrens' (open woodland) stretching for miles, with palmetto growing between the trees. Large areas of swampland were found around the Withlacoochie and Ocklawaha Rivers. The area immediately to the north of the reservation contained good farmland, but this was earmarked for white settlement, not for the Seminoles. The southern third of the Territory was dominated by the 'River of Grass' (Everglades). In the centre of the Florida Territory lay the Seminole Reservation, as agreed in the treaty of 1827.
In 1835 all military decisions were made by Brevet Brigadier-General Duncan Clinch, a man whose deep religious beliefs did not extend to love for the Indians. His force consisted of ten under-strength companies; six in Fort King, two in Fort Brooke, one in Fort Marion and one in Key West. In addition, state militia companies assisted in the garrisoning of several towns and settlements. Each company numbered around 50 men, so Clinch had only 562 regular officers and men to deal with any rising. He felt his isolated position at Fort King was vulnerable, and he would need more troops to undertake any offensive campaign against the Seminoles. He ordered Fort Brooke to be reinforced with three additional companies (one from Key West, two from New Orleans) and that the garrison would send two of these companies to Fort King, followed by the troops from New Orleans when they arrived:
On the arrival of Capt. Belton's and Capt. Gardiner's companies at Fort Brooke, you will order Capt. Fraser's and Capt. Gardiner's companies to proceed to this post (Fort King) as soon as practicable.
The order placed Captain Francis Belton in a quandary. As the officer commanding Fort Brooke, he commanded 207 officers and men, most of whom were in the hospital. By sending two of his four companies to Fort King, he would leave Fort Brooke defenceless. He was also unsure about the chances a detachment of 100 men would have in their march north, as Seminole strength was estimated at around 700 warriors, and a small detachment could easily be overwhelmed. On 21 December the transport ship Motto arrived from Key West, carrying Brevet Major Francis Dade and 38 reinforcements. With the promise of two more companies to come from New Orleans, Belton felt strong enough to comply with Clinch's orders.
The Fort King Road
The force was to be commanded by Captain George Gardiner of Company C, 2nd Regiment of Artillery, and his company was augmented by a second, Company B, 3rd Regiment of Artillery under Captain Upton Fraser. The total force amounted to 107 officers and men. Captain Gardiner's wife was seriously ill in the fort hospital, and at the last moment Major Dade offered to take over his command. Gardiner agreed, and in the forenoon of 23 December, Dade led the two companies out of the fort. Lieutenant William Basinger took command of Gardiner's company.
The soldiers marched in a column two men wide, with Dade and the two company commanders riding on horseback. A supply wagon and a six-pounder field gun towed by oxen brought up the rear. Apart from a dozen reinforcements from Dade's company, all the soldiers were artillerymen, but equipped as infantrymen. They were dressed for northern climes; grey-blue coats, sky-blue trousers, white cross-belts and black forage caps. A canvas haversack and knapsack contained a week's worth of rations and their personal possessions, and a blue woollen blanket strapped to the knapsack formed their bedding. Each man carried a Springfield model 1816 smooth-bore flintlock musket; an antiquated weapon firing a .69-in. ball. In addition, each man carried 40 rounds of ammunition, and was armed with a bayonet. Four miles from the fort it became clear that the oxen were not up to the task of pulling the cannon, and Dade ordered the team reattached to the wagon, and the gun was temporarily abandoned while assistance was summoned. Around noon a black slave arrived from the fort, carrying a note from Belton. He was Louis Pachero, and as a Seminole speaker was assigned to Dade as an interpreter. Dade decided to make camp for the night at the bridge over the Little Hillsbro River, and he ordered his men to construct a temporary breastwork on the south bank. During the night the gun was brought up by a three-horse team led by Captain Gardiner. His wife was en route to the hospital in Key West, leaving him free to rejoin his company. He also brought the news that there was still no sign of reinforcements; the main reason Dade had delayed for half a day at the river crossing. They were now on the edge of the Seminole Reservation, and had no option but to push on alone.
The following morning, Dade sent the interpreter ahead as a scout, and by noon Pachero returned from the main Hillsbro River to report that the bridge there was burned. Even more ominous was a freshly slaughtered cow, laid in the middle of the road as a warning. Dade ignored the signs, and by late afternoon his men reached the river, where they set up their second fortified camp. They were now 23 miles from the safety of the fort, and deep in enemy territory. A messenger was dispatched with news of their progress, possibly because Dade still hoped for reinforcements. During the night the sentries sensed they were being watched. Seminole scouts had been tracking Dade's troops all day, and these scouts kept in contact with Osceola and Micanopy. Dade also received intelligence that a hostile Seminole force was gathering in the forks of the Withlacoochie River, some 25 miles to the north, so the worst lay ahead.
At dawn on Christmas morning a schooner sailed into Tampa Bay carrying Lieutenant Montfort and his company, one of the two units expected from New Orleans. The same messenger who reported Dade's progress returned up the road with the news, asking Dade to wait. Montfort's 50 men would be attached to Dade's command. Meanwhile, Dade crossed the river and made camp at a spot called Hangerman's Hole, midway between the Hillsbro and Big Withlacoochie Rivers. He was now 38 miles from his base, and Pachero reported seeing deserted Seminole settlements and flattened grass by the side of the road. Dade was in no doubt that the Seminole knew of his presence. By some miracle the messenger arrived safely in the middle of the night, but Dade felt he was unable to wait. Safety lay in a forced march to Fort King, and any delay or attempt to link up with Montfort would be extremely dangerous. The soldiers were accompanied by a Seminole, the son of Holata Emathla, and he was sent back with Dade's decision to press on alone. The next morning was Saturday, the day after Christmas. Dade's men were faced with a crossing of the Withlahoochie, and the soldiers found the wooden bridge was still standing.
Pachero warned Dade of the presence of Seminole tracks ahead, but the officer was scornful, reputedly saying; 'Oh, I'll get through, if I have to fly sky-high'. Flank guards were set, and the troops crossed the river in safety. The region close to the river was heavily overgrown, and the road formed a tunnel through the undergrowth, an ideal spot for an ambush. After a tense hour, the column passed into more open land, and camp was made midway between the two forks of the Withlacoochie, and no attack came in the night. When dawn broke Dade continued to march north. According to Pachero's testimony, 'about this time I could see the major was anxious-like', but the column reached the Little Withlahoochie without incident. Although the bridge was burned beyond repair, Dade's men felled trees and crossed the creek on a makeshift bridge of logs. Once more the area on each side of the river was overgrown, but march was unimpeded, and the soldiers entered the higher, more open land beyond. It seemed that the worst was over. They had crossed through the forks of the Withlahoochie without incident, and only forty miles of relatively open terrain remained between them and the safety of Fort King. The soldiers camped two miles north of the river, in good spirits.
What Dade was unaware of was that a Seminole band was gathering at Wahoo Swamp, just north of the river crossing. Although Osceola was absent, keeping Fort King under observation, a body of around 130 Seminole warriors were preparing themselves for battle, led by the chiefs Ote Emathla, Halpatter Tustenuggee and Jumper. It was decided to ambush the soldiers a few miles north of the river crossing, where the road passed close to a small pond. Chief Micanopy arrived from his capital of Piluklakaha during the night, bringing another 50 men. The two forces were about to meet.
The Battle
Early in the morning of Monday 28 December 1835, Brevet Major Francis Dade led his command of 107 men north along the Fort King Road. A light rain had fallen during the night, and the morning was cool. Despite the conditions, Private Ransom Clarke felt elated, having passed through the most dangerous parts of the march unscathed. Dade placed a greater emphasis on speed than before, and while flanking troops had been deployed on the previous two days, Dade withdrew them, relying on a pack of three or four dogs to provide warning of any ambush. Captain Fraser led the advance guard of eight men and the interpreter, followed by a main body 200 yards behind, still in double files. The supply wagon followed the main body, while Lieutenant Basinger brought up the rear with the six-pounder and its crew. Major Dade and Captain Gardiner travelled with the main body. At one point the dogs started barking, and an old stray horse was discovered. After that, the dogs kept to the path with the advanced guard. As the column passed a small stagnant pond on their right, Dade rode up the line giving a pep talk, claiming: 'We have now got through all the danger; keep up good heart, and when we get to Fort King, I'll give you three days [leave] for Christmas'. These were the last words he spoke. A half mile ahead a trail broke off to the right, leading to Piluklakaha. Reports had reached Dade that the town was abandoned, and that the Seminoles had retreated deep into the Great Swamp. This only increased his confidence. In truth, while the women and children were hiding in the swamp, the warriors were watching Dade from the left (west) side of the road. Pine trees and palmetto bushes hid the Seminoles, but still provided a reasonably clear field of fire. Most warriors wore only loincloths and red warpaint, while others dressed in bright Seminole cloth. All of them carried Cuban rifles, a far more accurate weapon than the muskets issued to the white soldiers. The ambush was about to be sprung. By this stage, Dade had reached the advanced guard, and was eating a biscuit. It was almost exactly 8 am.
Micanopy and Ote Emathla watched the column, and the Seminole chief recognised Dade. Micanopy fired the first shot, hitting Dade in the heart. Within seconds the Seminoles rose from hiding and fired a fusillade of shots, cutting the advance guard down to a man. Only Pachero survived, and hid in the trees to the right of the road, while Dade's horse careered through the Seminoles to the left. Pachero later claimed that he thought he 'had seen the last day of the world'. The main column were taken completely by surprise, and 'a volley, as if from a thousand rifles, was poured in upon us from the front, and all along our left flank' (Private Clark). Seminoles sprang up from nowhere, and within seconds half of the command were down. Captain Gardiner was dressed in the civilian clothes he left his wife in, and Tustenuggee reported seeing him: 'a little man, a great brave, who shook his sword at the soldiers and said God Damn'. The surviving soldiers took cover, and inspired by Gardiner they formed a semi-circle, with their backs to the pond. With no sign of Dade and the advanced guard, he was now in charge. He ordered the gun to be brought up at the double, and within minutes it arrived, its horse team being cut down by rifle fire as the gun was being unlimbered. Basinger ordered the piece loaded with cannister and began firing into the undergrowth. 'The cannon was discharged several times, but the men who loaded it were shot down as soon as the smoke cleared away, the balls passing far over our heads' (Tustenuggee). This seems an exaggeration, as the Seminole fire diminished while the gun was in action, and many of the Indians withdrew back to the north, out of range. Pachero was spared by the Seminoles around him, and reported 'the grapeshot tore up the ground all about me'. Ote Emaltha and Micanopy rallied their men, claiming they were close to victory, while the soldiers ceased firing and waited. Gardiner ordered his men to construct a breastwork, and over the next hour a low triangular enclosure was built using felled pines, with an opening facing the pond to the east. The wounded were brought inside the breastwork, and men gathered ammunition from the dead. Only forty men were left alive, and while five formed the new gun crew, the rest were ordered to provide covering fire. Then the Seminoles returned. 'We had barely raised our breastwork knee high when we again saw the Indians advancing in great numbers . . . yelling and whooping . . . until within a long musket shot, when they spread themselves from tree to tree to surround us' (Private Clark). The Seminoles began to lay down a withering fire on the breastwork, and one by one the soldiers were wounded or killed. Then the gun ran out of ammunition, the only thing which kept the Indians at bay. Basinger spiked the piece, and the surviving crew retreated inside the breastwork. As they clambered inside, Gardiner was killed, just as he was exhorting his men to 'do your best'. Basinger and a dozen men remained, most wounded, including Private Clark. The soldier saw the officer fall, and later claimed, 'I was about the last one who handled a gun, while lying on my side'. As the resistance ceased the Indians approached the breastwork, led by Micanopy, Ote Emathla and Halpatter Tustenuggee. One soldier sprang up, clubbed an Indian and ran off, only to be cut down. An officer offered his sword to the chiefs, only to be shot in the chest. The few remaining survivors played dead, hoping to avoid detection. The Indians took the weapons, then left, only to be replaced by a group of runaway slaves, who sought revenge by searching the bodies for any white men who remained alive. Clark remained hidden among the bodies and, being covered in blood, he was given up for dead. He waited until nightfall, then crawled away under cover of dark.
Aftermath
That same night, the Indians celebrated their victory in their settlement in Wahoo Swamp. The victors were joined by Osceola, who had just come from Fort King, where he had shot the Indian Agent, Wiley Thompson, and several other white soldiers and settlers. Victory was complete, but temporary. Within days they were forced to fight again, driving off General Clinch who was attempting to infiltrate the Great Swamp. On 31 December Clark arrived back in Fort Brooke, having travelled sixty miles in three days. His wounds were so severe it was presumed he would die, but the young artilleryman survived to tell his story. Seven weeks later, on 20 February 1836, a thousand man force marching north from Fort Brooke came upon the scene of Dade's last stand. 'The vultures rose in clouds . . . the very breastwork was black with them.' The breastwork was peppered with rifle bullets, and inside it was covered with bodies and military equipment. One witness recorded seeing; 'about thirty bodies, mostly mere skeletons, although much of the clothing was left upon them. They were lying, almost every one of them, in precisely the position they must have occupied during the fight, their heads next to the logs over which they had delivered their last fire, and their bodies stretched with striking regularity parallel to each other.' Most had been shot through the forehead. In all, 105 soldiers lay in the pine woods along the Fort King Road, and were buried on the battlefield. The only survivors were Private Ransom Clark, Private Joseph Sprague and the slave interpreter, Louis Pachero, whose testimony provided much of the information about the battle.
When the press and the American public heard of the battle they demanded revenge, calling the engagement a 'massacre' rather than a last stand. The Second Seminole War (1835—42) had begun. A string of forts were built around southern Florida, hemming in the Seminoles. Resistance continued, but Osceola was captured in 1837 and died in captivity, and most of the remaining Seminoles had surrendered by 1842. While the majority of the tribe were relocated to Oklahoma, a few hundred fled into the wastes of the everglades. After a Third Seminole War (1855—58) only a handful remained. No peace treaty was ever signed, and their descendants remain in the Everglades to the present day. The Seminole War which began with Dade's Last Stand cost the lives of over
11,500 American soldiers (mainly through disease), and with a price tag of $20 million, it was the most expensive military campaign in America's history before the outbreak of the American Civil War. The decisions made by General Clinch in late December 1835 proved to be one of the most costly in American history, and to this day, the defeat of Dade and his command ranks second only to Custer's Last Stand (1876) as the greatest of Native American victories over the white man.
by Angus Konstam
About the Author
Angus Konstam hails from the Orkney Islands, and is the author of over 50 books, 30 of which are published by Osprey. This acclaimed and widely published author has written several books on piracy, including The History of Pirates. His most recent work is a full-length piratical biography: Blackbeard: America's Most Notorious Pirate. A former naval officer and museum professional, he worked as the Curator of Weapons at the Tower of London and as the Chief Curator of the Mel Fisher Maritime Museum in Key West, Florida. He now works as a full-time author and historian, and lives in Edinburgh, Scotland.