The formidable weather encountered in Korea led the British forces into developing a new combat uniform, closely modelled on the US M1943 multi-layered system. This innovative uniform system was to outfit the British Army for the next 45 years and was to form the basis of uniform development into the 21st century.
The country of Chosin, or Korea to westerners, was a small nation of some 85,000 square miles, a peninsula between the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan. Forested and mountainous the climatic variations were harsh by comparison to the UK. Winters were very cold and dry whilst summers were hot and humid with frequent and heavy rainfall of up to 11 inches during the rainy season. The cold in the north was intensified by Siberian winds blowing through Manchuria; with the autumn months being prone to typhoons the climate was certainly hostile.
Since 1910 Japan had occupied Korea and its neighbour Manchuria. During WWII Korean soldiers fought alongside Japanese during the struggle to free the Far East of western influence and domination. Although allied to the Americans and British, Russia had declined to employ her forces against Japan, being content to gain as much advantage as possible against Germany with the prospect of rich pickings following defeat of the Fatherland. However, the fall of Germany and the dropping of the first atomic bomb on 6 August gave Stalin a change of heart and the necessary motivation to come to the aid of his allies; the inevitable defeat of Japan and consequent prospect of territorial gains and remuneration was just too tempting. On 8 August Russia declared war on Japan, the following day the second atomic bomb was dropped and Japan's fate was sealed, 1,158,000 Russian troops crossed into Manchuria intent on reaching Korea. The Emperor Hirohito accepted that his nation was doomed and to avoid total annihilation Japan accepted surrender terms on 10 August; it was not until 2 September that the documents were signed. The intervening weeks allowed Russia to add Sakhalin and the Kurils to their occupied territory and, on 24 August, sign a treaty of alliance with China.
2 September 1945 saw the end of the Second World War, but also the division of Korea and the sewing of seeds of discontent that would lead to another major conflict. Korea was divided along the 38th parallel, Japanese troops in the north of the country surrendering to Russian forces, those to the south of the line surrendering to American troops. Despite a statement of intended Korean independence first made in 1943 the division was to destroy 'Chosin'. A joint commission was formed to decide on how to re-establish Korea as an independent nation, with China, Russia, America and Great Britain having a say in proceedings. By the spring of 1946, and with international relations strained, it became obvious that an impasse had been reached and that the representative nations would never reach mutually acceptable terms. In 1947 the United Nations stepped in. An impotent attempt at returning Korea to its people followed but failure was inevitable and in August 1948 Syngman Rhee proclaimed the Republic of Korea in the part of the country south of the 38th parallel. In direct response the Russian puppet Kim Il-Sung declared the north the Democratic Republic of Korea; the division of Korea was complete. Il-Sung and Rhee both laid claim to the country but it was only the government of the ROK that gained recognition and in 1949 was allowed to apply for membership of the UN. An application from the DRK was refused.
American occupation forces departed from South Korea at the height of the 'Cold War' in 1949; many redeployed to Europe to help counter the very real threat of another major conflict in that theatre. American military planning was geared to a major conflict, although post-war reductions had depleted her army to a little over 593,000 men, 111,430 of whom were in the Far East with another 88,956 in Europe. Under-manning was a problem and most infantry regiments were a battalion under strength. Britain's military had also suffered post-war cutbacks, but as well as contingency planning for a European war were committed to policing restless colonies clamouring for independence. It should also be mentioned that at this time America was doing its utmost to keep Britain's colonial influence in the Far East and Pacific to an absolute minimum. It strongly urged due consideration to requests for independence from the empire, and justified American dominance in the Pacific whilst conveniently overlooking American occupied colonies such as Puerto Rico (one of many previously Spanish dependencies taken in the Spanish American War).
On 25 June 1950 the DRK took the initiative in the reunification of Korea, invading the south with motivated, well-equipped divisions of the Korean People's Army in overwhelming numbers. The communists pushed the stunned South Koreans before them, overrunning the token forces that America had managed to put in theatre in July, President Truman having authorised armed intervention at the end of June. By the close of August the north had almost achieved her aim, leaving the south a narrow front around the port of Pusan in the south-east; by this time the world had taken notice and United Nations troops under General Douglas MacArthur were pouring into Pusan. The UN soon had almost total air and sea superiority, the peninsula proving ideally suited to naval actions. By early September the momentum of the attack had faltered under the pressure of lengthened supply lines constantly under attack from UN aircraft. On 15 September the UN took advantage of its superiority and landed troops at Inchon less than 20 miles from Seoul, the capital of South Korea, which was recaptured 11 days later. On the 16th UN forces broke out of Pusan and began the push toward the 38th parallel; the UN administration faltered but soon authorised the continuation of the conflict across the 38th parallel in an effort to destroy enemy resistance. The Chinese were gravely concerned at the prospect of such a powerful force rapidly approaching their borders and destroying a fellow communist regime in the process. The UN had undoubtedly taken this into account before crossing the line but had obviously considered the risk necessary. The Chinese reacted decisively against the threat that reached her borders by the end of October and on 25 November, in intense cold, 180,000 Chinese attacked UN forces in North Korea, eventually driving them back beyond the Imjin River. By April 1951 the line had stabilised roughly along the 38th parallel.
MacArthur had constantly and openly criticised the UN and President Truman for their lack of initiative in not pushing the assault into China; an attempt to destroy any future communist domination in the Far East would have been an action that was openly against both UN and US policies. Eventually Truman was pushed too far and the risk of war involving the USSR was so great that MacArthur had to go. On 11 April 1951 he was replaced by General Mathew B. Ridgway, the commander of the 82nd Airborne Division during the assault on Normandy. Eleven days later the Chinese mounted a major assault, but despite initial gains the enemy was soon pushed back beyond their start lines. By July a communist instigated ceasefire had been called and negotiations begun; discussions soon failed and the UN resumed offensive operations, pushing further north. At the end of October the communists once again instigated talks, allowing them time to build reserves but allowing the UN to do likewise. Talks almost broke down again but continued intermittently and doggedly for the next two years, during which time, and despite heavy losses, neither side was to make any further major gains. Eventually terms were 'agreed' and an armistice was signed on 27 July 1953 at Panmunjom. By the end of September 978 British POWs had been released, one choosing to stay in North Korea. There had been over 490,000 UN casualties including 72,500 dead, the communists losing 1,350,000 killed or wounded. Korea had been ravaged but the UN had shown its willingness to protect any nation that might call upon it for help against foreign aggression or oppressors. The right of the people of the Republic of Korea to exist as a nation had been affirmed and the UN had declared its bias.
The distinguishing feature of the members of the United Nations was the proliferation of US equipment, particularly during the first winter, the severity of which came as a shock to most nations, including the British. 41 Commando was one unit that was equipped entirely from US sources and apart from the Green Beret, were indistinguishable from US troops.
Many men found their clothing was inadequate, some even arriving in theatre with tropical clothing. The first British troops to arrive were from the 27th Brigade; coming from Hong Kong and wearing Jungle Green they were ill equipped for Korea and had to be fitted out from American stores. Others were less fortunate. The British 29th Infantry Brigade fared worse than the 27th; having proceeding to Korea from the UK, they had received the only equipment available, suited to a European winter and inferior to the US kit. None of the clothing was adequate for the temperatures as low as -20°F that they would have to survive. Despite this inadequacy the actual incidence of incapacitating cold injury during the winter of 1950—51 was only 2.13 per cent of wounded, with a low of 0.65 per cent to a high of 7.82 per cent in some units. The conditions were not easy to overcome; true arctic temperatures are relatively constant and can, with training and correct clothing, be countered. Korean temperatures varied dramatically during a 24-hour period; clothing that was barely adequate during a cold night could be too hot during the (often more active) day.This would lead to sweating during daytime, and problems with the cooling and freezing of moisture as the temperature dropped. Whilst the cold-related casualty figures are lower than they may have been there is no doubt about the suffering endured by the men on the ground, a problem recognised by both British and Americans who set in motion a programme for modernising the soldiers' clothing.
The first winter saw extensive action being taken to develop new clothing, which for British troops was adopted as the 1950 pattern combat dress, designed specifically for use in cold, wet weather. This pattern was based on the US M43 uniform and layering principle, having no less than seven layers available dependent on weather conditions. The Americans were also caught out by the climate, surprising considering that they had occupied South Korea since 1945, but soon put their efforts into developing a new combat uniform, introduced as the 1951 pattern but basically an improved 1943 ensemble. In fairness to all it should be pointed out that shortcomings of equipment were a product of the rapid expansion of the conflict.Had it not escalated in such a short space of time the logistics system could have managed and troops would have had better supplies of equipment. The new uniform was issued to the 1st Commonwealth Division for the winter of 1951-52.
The 1950 Pattern Combat Dress
During the Korean conflict the 1949 BD had largely replaced earlier patterns; the first winter saw BD and an assortment of WW2 cold weather kit, including windproofs and wool jerseys, issued in an attempt to combat the cold. The arrival of the 1950 uniform was to relegate BD to barracks dress or as an additional layer in the new system. Like its US counterpart the 'Smock Combat, 1950 pattern' (also called 'Smock, Combat, Sateen'), 'Trousers, Combat' and the 'Parka, Middle' were all made from a hard-wearing water-repellent sateen fabric with cotton lining to the smock and pile lining in the case of the parka. The smock had four external patch pockets, the lower two having a central pleat increasing the carrying capacity and an elasticated edge to prevent loss of contents; all were closed by a buttoned flap. Internally there were two open-topped breast pockets and a large poacher's pocket across the inside rear. The front was closed by a full-length zip, running from neck to just below the waist, and a full-length storm flap. A draw-cord at waist and lower edge improved heat retention. At the rear of the collar three buttons provided for the attachment of the hood with its drawstring and press stud fastening, the outer two of the three buttons also being used to secure the epaulettes. A small tab could be fastened across the front of the collar, when worn up, for additional protection. The sleeves were reinforced for their full circumference at the elbow, being finished at the wrist by a gusset secured by one of two buttons, whilst a small ventilation aperture was positioned in the armpit.
The trousers were basically a cotton sateen version of BD trousers. Individual size adjustment was necessary to allow for the varying number of undergarments worn; this was effected by button adjustable tabs at the waist. The front knee was reinforced by a double layer of fabric, as was the seat, and a two-way zip closed the trouser fly whilst an additional button flap gave increased wind protection on early production trousers. A drawstring at the leg cuff allowed for tightening around the boot and protection from the wind. The peaked 'Combat Cap' was made from the same fabric as the smock lining; it had a leather sweatband, waterproof crown liner, and flannel fabric to the side flaps which could be dropped down over the ears and held in place using the chin-strap. A stitched section on the front of the cap allowed for the fitting of a badge. All of the 1950 pattern kit had 'user labels' giving details of how to get the best out of the garment. That in the cap was most concise, reading:
COMBAT CAP
1. Use chin-strap to secure back curtain over ears.
That in the smock was rather more elaborate:
SMOCK COMBAT
1. Lubricate zipper fastener with lightly oiled cloth for free movement.
2. If zipper snags, work loose gently. Do not use force.
In extreme weather the hood could be worn over the combat cap. A warm combination, this did however severely restrict the wearer's hearing and therefore the combat efficiency and safety of front-line soldiers.
FOR COLD WEATHER
1. Tie the waist drawcord loosely before closing zipper fastener.
2. Button front flap for added protection.
3. For additional warmth tighten both bottom edge drawcord and cuffs.
4. For ventilation loosen draw-cords and/or open zipper closure.
HOOD
Attach hood to the button at back of the neck under collar and to the shoulder strap buttons.
KEEP COOL. DON'T OVERHEAT
When the combination of smock, liner and other layering garments of the M1950 pattern uniform were in themselves insufficient the 'Parka-Middle' provided a final outer layer. Inspired by the US M1948 parka it had a cotton sateen outer with a pile fabric inner, this pile extended through the sleeves and into the attached hood. There was a single drawstring at the waist, the lower edge being secured by a long 'Donkey Tail' that passed from the rear lower edge of the garment, between the wearer's thighs and fastened to two buttons positioned at the front. There were no interior pockets but two large patch pockets were located on the front lower skirt.
A zip and button-over storm flap closed the front opening. Sleeves were reinforced as on the smock but were closed at the cuff by a strap and buckle arrangement. The integral hood could be closed around the face using drawcords, a separate cord at the rear serving to reduce the bulk of the hood when worn without other headgear.
A large peak extended around the hood, it had a wired outer rim that could be shaped around the face to exclude all but a breathing hole, or to suit the wearer's needs. A tab closed across the neck by means of a fabric loop and a metal hook. All of the buttons used on the parka were of a large 3 cm size assisting in their manipulation with gloved hands.
The leather soled and fully studded, 'Ammo boot' had served the British army reasonably well for many years, development of footwear taking a low priority in the British army. Whilst looking to the American designs for our clothing we would have done well to have also examined the boots being issued to the GIs. The ammo boot was however recognised as being unsuited to Korea; limited insulation properties and a thin porous sole were poor for use during an English winter but spelt disaster in climates such as Korea's. The solution for the die-hard designers was to modify the ammo boot; this was done by enlarging the whole boot, in relation to its size range, enabling a thick insole to be worn with extra socks. The toe cap was widened and heightened, and a thick cleated rubber 'Commando sole' was added. The 'new' boot was called the 'Boot, CWW' (Cold Wet Weather) which although being an improvement on the ammo boot still fell short of the footwear on issue to US forces in theatre.
Martin J. Brayley