Teaching War

Teaching War: Using the Essential Histories for a deeper examination of key wars

About This Guide:

Essential Histories, published by Osprey Publishing, is a series of books on the history of war. These books can be used in courses on military history or, as would be more typical in a high school classroom, they can supplement discussions and activities in survey courses in United States or world history classes.

Each of these books includes ample photographs, maps, and compelling personal narratives. Each is structured in a similar way and moves far beyond a discussion of battles and military strategy to analysis of the causes of war, the national and international context in which war occurs, the consequences of war, and the impact of war on both the civilian population and the military.

This guide provides suggestions to assist teachers in effectively using the Essential Histories as they help their students view war through many lenses—from the military perspective, the political perspective, from that of the individual soldier and the people left at home. It examines how teachers can use art and literature in their classrooms to provide students with additional insights about the wars that have played such an important role in the history of the United States and the world.

Students are often fascinated by military history. But the instruction they receive often focuses on specific battles and military strategy. These, of course, are both interesting and important, but war should be examined in the context of the society in which it occurs. If we are to learn from war, we must closely examine its causes and consequences, and we must listen to the stories of those closest to the conflict—the soldiers, their families, the civilians in the war factories, and the innocent victims of war. Students should examine the lyrics of the great songs that have come from wartime, the poignant paintings that reflect both the glory and the agony of battle, the poetry and the novels that depict the great conflicts. Studying war in all its facets helps us to understand each conflict within its larger historical context.

While teachers may focus on one or more specific conflicts, wars are linked by a number of universal themes. It is these themes that help our students understand the power and pathos of war. Here are some themes to consider as we attempt to teach our students the role that war has played in the formation of this nation and others:

• Political, social, and economic context of war
• War as a reflection of tensions within and between societies
• The role of the media in leading nation to war and out of it
• The role of women in wartime
• Art, music, and literature as a reflection of a society at war
• Technology and how it causes and shapes conflicts
• Establishing the peace and dealing with its aftermath
• The relationship between the government and the military
• War as a vehicle to forge national identity

The discussion here focuses on four volumes of the Essential Histories series: Liberty or Death (which covers the French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the War of 1812), The American Civil War, The First World War, and The Vietnam War. However, it is hoped that the suggestions here can be used for discussions of other conflicts. The guide is organized according to the four volumes. You’ll find additional sections called “Making Connections” which offer activities designed to help students compare various conflicts or that can be used in the context of any conflict.

The following is an overview of four volumes of the Essential Histories series and suggestions for the classroom.

Liberty or Death: Wars that Forged a Nation                                                                                         

By Carl Benn and Daniel Marston

This volume examines three wars: the French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the War of 1812. These conflicts belong together, because during a period of sixty years or so, Americans “forged their enduring attitudes toward the justification and practice of war” (8). We will explore this “justification and practice” throughout the guide. By the end of the War of 1812, a more stable American nation had emerged from its infancy and had begun its inexorable expansion toward the Mississippi, forcing the Indians living east of the river to make peace with the American government. Note that individual volumes devoted to each of these wars are available in the Essential Histories series.

For Discussion:

1.      What role did American Indians play in these conflicts?

2.      How did these three wars help define “the brotherhood of white Protestant men?”

3.      Study the painting on page 23 of the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. What can you tell about this depiction of the battle? How does geography help determine the conduct and the outcome of battle?

4.      Compare and contrast what the text calls “linear” and “irregular” warfare (22). Use the many diagrams of battles that are provided in the text to help you do this as you proceed from the study of one war to the next.

Primary Sources:

Primary sources are the best way to allow students to have a “conversation” with the people most touched by war—the leaders and the led, soldiers and civilians, supporters and opponents. Here is a list of primary sources that might be used in a unit on the three wars covered in this volume. Primary sources can be found in many publications; many in this guide are taken from Words That Made America Great, edited by Jerome Agel and published by Random House.

• Letters penned by John and Abigail Adams to each other
• The Declaration of Independence (Second Continental Congress)
• Common Sense (Thomas Paine)
• War Message (War of 1812) to Congress (James Madison)
• Letter from Abigail Adams to Mercy Otis Warren, December 1812

Writing Assignments:

1.      Analyze the ways in which the French and Indian War contributed to the decision of the American colonists to declare independence from Great Britain.

2.      What made Common Sense such an effective tool for those who advocated separation from Great Britain? Be sure to examine Paine’s use of language, religious references, and brilliant juxtaposition of reason and rhetoric.

3.      Account for the victory of the American colonists over the British in the American Revolution.

4.      Analyze the political, social, and economic consequences of the American Revolution. Did these consequences prove to be truly revolutionary?

5.      To what extent did the American Revolution change the lives of colonial women?

6.      The United States gained little in the Treaty of Ghent (1814). However, the War of 1812 had considerable impact on the nation. Explain this apparent paradox.

The American Civil War: This Mighty Scourge of War                                                                                           

by Gary W. Gallagher, Stephen D. Engle, Robert K. Kirck, and Joseph T. Glatthaar

The introduction to this book argues that the “Civil War was a watershed in the history of warfare.” And in many ways it was a “total or modern war” (15). The paradox of the Civil War was that, while it began as a struggle over the restoration of the Union, it instead “profoundly reshaped the political, economic, and social contours of the nation” (15).

For Discussion:

1.      Examine the various views on slavery held by both northerners and southerners as war loomed near. How did those views evolve as the war progressed?

2.      At the conclusion of your study of the Civil War, conduct a graded seminar based on the authors’ arguments that this conflict was both a very modern war and a paradoxical one.

3.      Read the section “Federals and Confederates in camp and in battle” (80-84). Discuss the similarities and differences between those who fought on different sides in the Civil War.

4.      Carefully read the lyrics to Dixie (156). Why was this such an effective anthem for the Confederacy?

Writing Assignments:

1.      Compare and contrast Lincoln’s two inaugural addresses. This is a good exercise to assist students in learning how to write a compare and contrast essay. It is less effective to organize this essay through a discussion of the first inaugural followed by a discussion of the second; instead, help students develop categories by which they can compare the two addresses. Categories could include: context, tone, purpose, position on slavery, and use of religious references.

2.      The authors of this volume argue that, despite a common misperception of the Civil War, “either side could have won the war.” Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of each side. Why did the North emerge victorious?

Primary Sources:

• Statement to the Court (John Brown)
• The Impending Crisis of the South (Hinton Helper)
• The South Vindicated from the Treason and Fanaticism of the Northern Abolitionists (H. Manly)
• First and Second Inaugural Addresses (Abraham Lincoln)
• Gettysburg Address (Abraham Lincoln)
• Diary (Mary Chestnut)

The First World War: The War to End All Wars                                                                                                     

by Peter Simkins, Geoffrey Jukes, and Michael Hickey

The foreword to this volume argues that World War I comprised a number of campaigns that were “self-contained in their origins and even in their conduct.” Nations fought these campaigns through “national efforts made in pursuit of national goals.” Hence, World War was a much different war than World War II.

Because of the many nations involved and the many fronts on which the war took place, this is a complex and sometimes difficult war for students to study. Students tend to assert that its cause was simply the assassination of the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. Although that event sparked the outbreak of war, it was by no means the cause.

Classroom Activities:

1.      This is a war for which international context is particularly important. Students might begin this unit by developing, studying, and discussing a detailed chronology of the events from 1890 to 1914 which led to the outbreak of war.

2.      Design a role-playing activity where groups of students assume the roles of the leaders of the nations most involved in bringing Europe to war in 1914. Students must clearly determine their national objectives, barriers to achieving them, alliances in which they should participate, and what they hope to achieve by going to war.

3.      World War I provides us with some of the finest and most poignant poetry to ever come from war. The war poets, many of whom later died in battle, illustrate patriotism and pathos. Some believed in their mission; others felt it was futile. Give students a selection of World War I era poems. These might include “Rendezvous” (Alan Seeger), “Dulce et Decorum Est” (Wilfred Owen), and “1914” (Rupert Brooke). Conduct a poetry reading and discussion of these beautiful and poignant poems.

4.      Read the account of the village of Christleton (330-334). What do we learn from examining one particular place? What factors served to unify villages such as Christleton? Why might factors serve to divide the people there? Prepare a project on the town in which you live and how it was affected by the war in Vietnam or how it is currently impacted by the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Interview members of the military, spouses and families left behind when soldiers have gone to war, journalists, educators, business owners, and other members of the community. Collect newspaper clippings and family photographs. Tell the story of your town in wartime.

For Discussion:

1.      The authors of this volume bring to our attention the paradox of the German war strategy. The Germans feared a two-front war but were forced to fight one. But it was only after Russia withdrew from the conflict and Germany was left with a single-front that the Germans lost the war. Why did this happen?

2.      The governments that entered World War I ranged from autocratic states to democratic republics. By analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of these nations in the period between 1900 and 1917, debate whether autocratic states or democracies were better prepared for war. Why was this so?

3.      Make a chart showing casualties of World War I, based on the information in the “Aftermaths” section (337-341). What do these statistics tell us about this war? Account for the numbers of dead, injured, and sick. What numbers shock you? Which do you find puzzling?

Writing Assignments:

1.      Look at the photograph of the dead Russian soldier (251). Reflect on what you see here.

2.      Analyze the dilemma faced by Woodrow Wilson. For years he vowed that he would keep the United States out of war, but by April 1917, he had to convince the American people to go to war. After reading Wilson’s First Inaugural Address, analyze how Wilson was able to do this.

3.      Both World War I and World War II led to an increased fear of foreigners, especially those from Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. Read firsthand accounts of the Red Scare of 1919 and the hearings conducted in Congress by Joseph McCarthy and others in the early years of the Cold War. Compare attitudes toward foreigners and actions taken against them in the periods following World War I and World War II.

Primary Sources:

• The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (Houston Stewart Chamberlain)
• Germany of the Next War (Friedrich von Bernhardi)
• Declaration of War (Woodrow Wilson)
• The Fourteen Points (Woodrow Wilson)

The Vietnam War: 1956-1975                                                                                                                                  

by Andrew Wiest

The author’s introduction argues that, due to the long term impact of the conflict in Vietnam, it “ranks as possibly the most important American event of the twentieth century” (7).  That is a very strong assertion, but it is one that many Americans, both and young, accept. Wiest goes on to say that this war was so significant because it “led to a near breakdown of the American body politic” (7). These comments can serve as an introduction to the study of the Vietnam War. Students have all heard of the Vietnam War and bring to the study of it their own images of the conflict—images largely drawn from movies, books, and perhaps stories that family and friends brought back from Southeast Asia. Hopefully by a careful examination of this war, a war that the Vietnamese call “the American War,” students can better understand it and the effect it has had on all Americans.

For Discussion:

1.      As in any war, the conflict in Vietnam was replete with paradoxes. One that the author highlights is the fact that the United States was forced to engage in this war to fulfill its aim of containing communism, yet it was a war that was conducted in such a way as to make it unwinnable (8). Assess the accuracy of this assertion.

2.      Read aloud Dr. Seuss’s The Butter Battle Book. While in the beloved style that only Dr. Seuss can give us, this is also a book with a serious message about the futility of the arms race. It is his commentary on the Cold War. What is Dr. Seuss’s argument in this tale? Do you agree with him?

3.      How did the United States lose what the author calls “its staggering advantage” in Vietnam?

4.      Wiest wrote this book in 2002, before the conflict in Afghanistan and Iraq escalated to the scale we see today. He notes that, “as the war against terror rages, military leaders are careful to ensure that they do not become embroiled in the political chaos of Afghanistan” (8).  Discuss whether the military is indeed embroiled in political chaos in Afghanistan or Iraq. Why does Wiest advise against military involvement in politics?

Classroom Activities:

1.      Much has been said about the lessons of Vietnam and whether they apply to Iraq. As the year or semester comes to a close, determine a number of criteria on which a comparison of wars can be made: reasons for war, goals, strategies, reaction from the home front, role of the media, impact of new technologies, successes and failures, etc. Divide students into a number of groups and assign one or two of these categories to each group. Each group is to construct a Power Point presentation or some form of presentation. Use these presentations to engage the class in a spirited comparison of the conflicts in Vietnam and in Iraq and Afghanistan.

2.      Try to find community members who served in World War II, Korea, Vietnam, Kuwait, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Invite these veterans to your classroom. Try to include service people who served in less well known areas such as peacekeepers in Bosnia or in Ronald Reagan’s invasion of Grenada. Prepare a list of questions to ask them.

Writing Assignments:

1.      Lyndon Johnson’s programs and his legacy were tarnished by the war in Vietnam. What factors led Johnson to become so embroiled in Vietnam? What crucial decisions did he make as he escalated the conflict and what, if anything, could he have done to avoid massive U.S. intervention in Southeast Asia?

2.      Compare and contrast the Vietnam War with one other war the class has studied. In your introductory paragraph be certain to establish the categories on which you will base your analysis.

3.      In the 1960s, two widespread movements shook America: the antiwar movement and the civil rights movement. These movements converged as the war in Vietnam escalated. Why did this happen, and what was the effect of this convergence?

Primary Sources:

• The Sources of Soviet Conduct (George Kenman)
• The Port Huron Statement (Tom Hayden)
• Peace Without Compromise (Lyndon Johnson)
• The War Powers Act

MAKING CONNECTIONS

Wars are often best understood by comparing them to other wars. The Making Connections section of this guide provides teaching suggestions for linking the study of various conflicts. The suggestions here can be used for study of a particular conflict or as thread that can be woven into the entire semester’s or year’s study of war.

Expanding Liberty—Or Not:

According to the foreword of Liberty or Death, “the so-called War Hawks argued that offensive warfare could be justified if it liberated the oppressed and hence expanded the sphere of freedom” (8). For each war studied in the classroom, use this as an essential focus for the unit: to what extent was this war fought with the purpose of “expanding the sphere of liberty?” How successfully was liberty expanded?

As a final activity for the year’s study of war, divide the class into groups. Assign each group a war in which one of the goals is the spread of liberty. Students are to make a presentation to the class on this conflict. Examples can range from the American Revolution to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Art as a Reflection of War:

Art is a valuable vehicle for understanding war. For each unit during the year, show students at least one painting. Give them some background on the artist and encourage them to examine how this piece of art teaches us about war. Discuss the important questions that the painting elicits. How does the artist’s background influence his or her work? How are the “good guys” and the “bad guys” portrayed? What is the tone conveyed by the painting; does it reflect fear, jubilation, sorrow? Here are some examples of paintings of the past centuries that cause students top closely examine the nature of war:

• The Battle of San Romano (Paolo Uccello)
• The Death of Wolfe (Benjamin West)
• The Oath of the Horatii (Jacques Louis David)
• The Surrender of Bread (Diego Velasquez)
• The Execution of the Third of May (Francisco Goya)
• Liberty Leading the People (Eugene Delacroix)
• Gassed (John Sargent)
• Guernica (Pablo Picasso)

Geared for War:

In his discussion of the French and Indian War, the author introduces the notion of “a citizenry geared for war” (32). In this case the reference is to the Canadian militia. Ask students to define what is meant by this characterization. As the class analyzes conflicts throughout history, keep this notion of a “citizenry geared for war” in mind. For example, many history texts view the soldiers of the Confederacy in the Civil War as more “geared for war” than their Union counterparts.

Portrait of a Soldier:

Each volume in this series contains sections called “Portrait of a Soldier.” Develop a list of questions to discuss or to use as essay prompts that can be used for any conflict. Look at the lives of these soldiers in each war your class examines. At the end of the year, design a project that brings all of these portraits together. Students can make a poster for each soldier they have met throughout the year. This poster could include quotations from his journal, a drawing of the uniform he wore, the role this soldier played in “his war,” and a map of where this soldier fought. Display this gallery of soldiers in your classroom or in your school where it can be viewed by students and visitors.

From the American Revolution to the wars of the 20^th and 21^st centuries, African American soldiers have fought and died for their country. Yet, the armed forces were not integrated until ordered by Harry Truman shortly after World War II. Examine the roles played by African Americans in wars from the Revolution to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Analyze the debates that have been waged over whether, or in what capacity, African Americans could serve in the U.S. military.

Memorializing War:

Americans and citizens of other nations construct monuments to those who have sacrificed for the good of the nation. These monuments can take the form of a physical structure, such as the Vietnam memorial in Washington, or can take other forms—such as speeches, poems, and posters.

As your course progresses, have students compile a list of different memorials to the soldiers of the wars they study. Develop a set of questions that could be used to analyze specific memorials. Either at the end  of the discussion of each conflict you cover, or as a culminating activity as the course concludes, have students make presentations on these memorials—photographs, posters, delivering of speeches, reading of poems, playing of music, etc… Provide bulletin board space in your classroom for materials that your students produce. Set aside an evening for presentation of projects on these memorials and invite parents and friends.

The Costs of War:

Nations that engage in war always must bear the costs that war inevitably brings. Each Essential Histories volume includes a section on the costs of war—the economic costs, the sacrifices made by the civilian population, and, of course, the costs paid by the military in the field. Ask students to construct a list of the kinds of costs incurred during wartime. Construct a chart that can be completed during the study of each conflict covered in your course. The chart should include space for students to specify the specific costs of a conflict and the ways in which the government and other organizations find the resources to pay these costs. At the end of the course, ask students to write an essay responding to this prompt:

Which of the conflicts that we studied do you believe cost the most? Your essay must include an insightful thesis which makes an argument and sets forth the structure of your essay. You must support this thesis with substantial and relevant information.

War & Propaganda:

The third section of Liberty or Death—on the War of 1812—includes a discussion of the use of propaganda in this conflict (256). Propaganda often figures prominently in the outbreak of war; whether overt or sometimes more subtle, it takes the form of paintings, drawings and cartoons, as well as slogans and the use of yellow journalism. As your class proceeds through the study of war, students should identify what they consider to be examples of propaganda. Have students present their examples to the class. Why might they be considered propaganda? What is the stated purpose and message of the work? What is it trying to convince the public to believe? How successful was this in changing or reinforcing the public’s view? Did it effect a change in government policy?

Here are some examples that can be used in a discussion of propaganda:

• The Boston Massacre (Liberty or Death, 106)
• Paul Revere’s etching of the Boston Massacre
• Revere’s words about the Boston Massacre:

Unhappy Boston!

See thy Sons deplore

Thy hallowed walks besmear’d with guiltless gore.

• Battle of Lexington (Liberty or Death, 124)
• Common Sense (Thomas Paine)
• Cartoon on British and their Indian allies (Liberty or Death, 258)
• Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Harriet Beecher Stowe)
• The White Man’s Burden (Rudyard Kipling)
• Slogans of war, for example “Remember the Maine”
• World War I posters

A Standing Army?:

One of the values that Americans inherited from their British ancestors was a suspicion of, and a reluctance to form, a standing army. However, as the American nation evolved, it became clear that an all-volunteer army is sometimes difficult to secure and maintain. In 1792, nearly ten years after the ratification of the Treaty of Paris which ended the American Revolution, Congress passed the Militia Act of 1792 which mandated that all free white male citizens, ages 18-45, enroll in their state militia Liberty or Death, 187). Americans have been grappling with the issue of conscription ever since.

Examine with you r students the manner in which the United States government has raised the forces it has needed for the wars it has fought. Analyze the debates that have raged over the issue of conscription. Have your students maintain a list of the ways the American government and the Confederacy (for the years 1860-1865) maintained a viable military force. Analyze the reasons why the United States government abolished the draft in the 1970s and the debate about the draft that has recently resurfaced in the face of the war in Iraq. Examine the issues and the controversy surrounding the current use of reserves in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Women & War:

War has often been considered the province of men. However, women have played a crucial role in the days leading to war, in the conduct of war, and during the aftermath of war. Examples that come to mind are the “republican mothers” of the Revolutionary War era, Harriet Beecher Stowe, “Rosie the Riveter,” and the nurses who served in Vietnam. History is replete with other examples. We must avoid the tendency to isolate women on the periphery of war, so teachers should work to place women clearly in view when teaching students about war. Fortunately, primary source readers are increasingly including the words of women during periods of war. Use these sources to examine the female perspective. How do the views and roles of women compare to those of their male counterparts? Examine the current debates over the issues of women in combat and the draft.

Congress, The Courts & The President:

Acts of Congress and Supreme Court decisions affect the conduct of war. Additionally, the ways in which presidents use the powers vested in them during wartime have a significant impact on public opinion both during and a president’s term in office.

Units on war should include discussion and analysis of the actions of government before, during, and after the conflict.

Teachers can construct discussion questions or writing prompts that promote understanding of the role of the branches of government in wartime.

Examples of significant congressional actions:

• Establishment of the Continental Army and appointment of George Washington as its head (1775)
• Radical Reconstruction (1866)
• Rejection of the Treaty of Versailles (1919)
• Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1965)
• War Powers Act (1973)
• Twenty Fifth Amendment

Supreme Court Decisions:

• Dred Scott v. Sanford
• Schenk v. US
• Nixon v. New York Times

Presidents whose tenure in office and legacy were shaped by their actions in time of war:

• George Washington
• Woodrow Wilson
• James Polk
• Franklin Roosevelt
• Abraham Lincoln
• Lyndon Johnson
• Theodore Roosevelt
• George W. Bush