Measuring just seventeen and a half miles by eight and a quarter, Malta is the largest of three main islands situated in the middle of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily and almost equidistant from Gibraltar to the west and Suez to the east. In 1814, Malta joined the British Empire, serving as an ideal base for the Royal Navy, the Army and, more than a century later, the Royal Air Force.
On 10 June 1940, Italy entered the war against Britain and France. At dawn the next day,the Regia Aeronautica's 2a Squadra Aerea commenced operations against Malta as 18 Macchi C.200s escorted some 55 Savoia Marchetti S.79s across the 60 miles of sea that separates the island from Sicily. Hal Far airfield, Kalafrana seaplane station and the dockyard area were all targeted. Three Gloster Sea Gladiators flown by RAF pilots intercepted the raiders in this, the first of many engagements during the next two and a half years.
The Fighter Flight's outdated biplanes were Malta's sole aerial defence for nearly two weeks following Italy's declaration of war. Eventually, they would be immortalised as Faith, Hope and Charity (notwithstanding the fact that there were at least four aircraft on strength with others stored in crates). On 21 June two Hurricanes, followed the next day by three more, joined the Gladiators after landing on Malta while en-route to the Middle East.
Malta had been at war for nearly two months before an operation was launched to reinforce the island's fighter force. On 2 August, 12 Hurricane Mk. Is of 418 Flight left the aircraft carrier HMS Argus, to be flown 380 miles to Luqa where they joined the surviving fighters to form 261 Squadron.
On 17 November, HMS Argus again dispatched to Malta 12 Hurricanes, this time accompanied by two Fleet Air Arm Blackburn Skuas. Tragically, eight of the RAF fighters ran out of fuel before reaching their destination, while one of the Skuas was shot down by AA fire after becoming hopelessly lost and flying over Sicily.
Arrival of the Luftwaffe
Mussolini's offensive against Malta, the North African campaign and Italy's invasion of Greece finally led Hitler to send reinforcements to his ally in the Mediterranean. Towards the end of 1940, elements of X Fliegerkorps began to arrive in Sicily from Norway, and by mid-January 1941 the Luftwaffe had gathered in Sicily a formidable array of front-line aircraft. For Malta, the war was about to begin in earnest.
In January 1941, Operation Excess delivered to the island additional troops, supplies and a number of crated Hurricanes, though not without cost. The destroyer HMS Gallant was severely damaged by a mine, while the carrier Illustrious was singled out for attack by the Germans during the debut of the Luftwaffe over the central Mediterranean. After being severely damaged in a series of air attacks, HMS Illustrious was able to limp into Grand Harbour during the evening of the 10th. Incredibly, the carrier was virtually ignored by the enemy until 16 January, when she was targeted by a combined force of some 44 Ju 87s and 17 Ju 88s escorted by Bf 110s, CR 42s and Macchi C.200s. But the defenders, having learned much from previous raids by Italian dive-bombers, had prepared a formidable 'box barrage'. The attackers also had to contend with the Island's fighters, supplemented by Fulmars off Illustrious. Two days later, the German bombers returned, this time concentrating on the airfields at Hal Far and Luqa. On Sunday 19 January, the carrier was again subjected to a day of intensive bombing, with the attackers having to face a terrifying repetition of Thursday's barrage.
On the 23rd, Illustrious slipped her moorings and quietly left Grand Harbour on the first stage of her journey to the shipyards of the United States. Her remaining Fulmars stayed as welcome reinforcements for the island's air force.
Events in Libya led to the departure between January and March of a number of Axis aircraft from Sicily (though some Ju 88s would return in early April). Early in February, Messerschmitt Bf 109Es of 7/JG 26 were transferred from Germany to Sicily. The outstanding performance of the unit commander, Oberleutnant Joachim Müncheberg, had already gained him 23 victories and earned him the coveted Ritterkreuz (Knight's Cross).
At the end of January, six more Hurricanes arrived in Malta from North Africa. However, the Hurricane was no match for the faster, cannon equipped Messerschmitt Bf 109E. During the next four months, 7/JG 26 would claim at least 42 air victories, 20 of which were credited to Müncheberg (including one during his unit's brief involvement in the invasion of Yugoslavia) and all without a single operational loss.
Notwithstanding German efforts to neutralise Malta, the island was still able to provide the Royal Navy with a base from which to strike at Axis shipping, thus creating a constant drain on the enemy's Mediterranean supply routes.
The island's fighter strength was sustained by the occasional reinforcements from North Africa, coupled with the constant attention of RAF ground personnel. On 3 April, Malta received its first batch of Hurricane IIAs. During the next two months there were three major Naval operations, in which the carriers Ark Royal and Furious flew off a total of 81 Hurricanes, although many were to continue to the desert after refuelling. During this time - mid 1941 - the air forces on both sides in the central Mediterranean underwent some reorganising. In Malta, a newly-reformed 185 Squadron was created with pilots from 261 Squadron, shortly before the latter unit was replaced by 249 Squadron, flown in from Ark Royal on 21 May. April and May also saw the arrival of the first Blenheim and Beaufighter units. In June, more Hurricanes, including the latest four-cannon IICs, were ferried in by the Royal Navy, and on the 28th, 126 Squadron was also re-formed from the recently arrived 46 Squadron to operate from Ta'Qali with 249. In July, 12 Hurricane IIs were allocated for a new night fighter unit. Malta's defences were further improved with the arrival of more troops, AA guns and ammunition.
The Allied build-up in Malta coincided with the run-down of the Luftwaffe in Sicily. Most of its aircraft were withdrawn in May for Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of Russia. The following month, 7/JG 26 also left, flying south to Libya.
Italian seaborne attack
Tasked once again with subjugating Malta, the Italians proceeded with an audacious plan whereby they would simultaneously strike at the submarine base at Marsamxett Harbour and the recently arrived Substance convoy in neighbouring Grand Harbour. Following the withdrawal of the Luftwaffe, there had been a noticeable decrease in the number of raids. The islanders were therefore amazed when, during the night of 25/26 July, the Italian Navy's elite La Decima Flottiglia MAS deployed two SLC 'human torpedoes' and nine MTM explosive motor boats to a point north of Grand Harbour. Unfortunately for the Italians they were detected while still 20 miles short of their target. Furthermore, when the attack began, the SLCs failed to reach their objectives, which included the destruction of the anti-torpedo net across the harbour mouth. This task was taken over by one of the MTMs. At 4.45am, it hit and blew up the mole bridge of the breakwater causing the west span to collapse, which effectively blocked the entrance. The attack now turned into a rout for the Italians. As searchlights illuminated the scene the shore defences opened up, sending tracer rounds ricocheting off the sea into the night sky. The Italians were in a hopeless situation, made all the worse when Hurricanes took off at dawn to attack the survivors as they tried to withdraw back to Sicily. Fifteen Italians were killed in the raid, and 18 captured.
There was a sharp decline in Italian aerial activity during August and September. For the first time, Malta's forces were able to meet the enemy on an equal footing with the Navy, delivering, between July and September, seven Swordfish and 22 Hurricanes in addition to thousands of tons of supplies. The Italians did what they could to disrupt operations, but of some 67 vessels comprising the convoys Substance and Halberd, just two ships were sunk and four damaged.
In September, several Hurricanes were fitted with Light Series bomb racks capable of holding 40lb General Purpose and 25lb incendiary bombs; the 'Hurri-bombers' subsequently carrying out a series of raids against Sicily.
On 12 November, 34 Hurricanes flown by pilots of 242 and 605 Squadrons arrived from the carriers Argus and Ark Royal. The following day, Ark Royal was sunk by U-81. The previous month she had also delivered one Swordfish and 11 Albacore torpedo bombers for the island's strike force.
Return of the Luftwaffe and the arrival of the Spitfire
With the onset of winter, the Germans began to transfer to Sicily aircraft from the Eastern Front and elsewhere. It was the beginning of the end for the Hurricane's short-lived reign over Malta. In December, II Fliegerkorps replaced the Regia Aeronautica in day operations over the Island. German raids began on a relatively small scale, increasing in intensity towards the end of the month, with daylight bomber sorties heavily escorted by the latest Messerschmitt Bf 109Fs.
In order to survive as an Allied base, the island had continued to be re-supplied by sea, but there still remained an urgent requirement for more fighters. On 7 March, 15 Spitfire Mk. VB(Trop)s were flown in from HMS Eagle. At last, here was a machine with both the speed to match the Bf 109 and the firepower required to destroy the Ju 88. At about this time, 1435 Flight (formerly the Malta Night Fighter Unit) also received as a welcome addition to its own Hurricanes, four Beaufighters on detachment from 89 Squadron in Egypt.
On 21 and 29 March, Malta was reinforced with 16 more Spitfires. In the interim, the survivors of convoy MW10 reached the island. Consequently, the Luftwaffe redirected its efforts against the harbours, thereby easing the pressure on Ta'Qali which had been rendered temporarily unserviceable after attacks on 20 March. One merchantman, Clan Campbell, and an escorting destroyer, HMS Southwold, were lost. All the remaining cargo ships: Talabot and Pampas and the Commissioned Auxiliary Supply Ship Breconshire, the latter a veteran of the Malta run, were among those vessels sunk as a result of heavy raids on 26 March.
During March, the fighter units underwent some reorganization with 242 and 605 Squadrons being absorbed by 126 and 185. On the 27th, Hurricane IICs of 229 Squadron were transferred to Malta from North Africa, with further reinforcements arriving in April and early the following month, when aircraft were flown in to replace those lost in the previous five weeks of combat. Due to the high attrition rate of the Hurricanes and Spitfires, the RAF was finding it increasingly difficult to meet the enemy fighters on an equal basis. The Bf 109s frequently outnumbered their opponents and sometimes encountered no aerial opposition whatsoever.
The island's strike aircraft also suffered fearful losses. Surviving machines were kept operational by all available means, with ground crews often using spares scavenged from the wrecks which littered the airfields, and frequently working through the night to service a grounded aircraft. To protect the precious aeroplanes and service vehicles, dispersal pens were constructed from sandbags, rubble, stone and earth-filled petrol cans, and whatever else could be utilised. By the end of April, around 300 pens had been built along with 27 miles of dispersal runway. This mammoth task was achieved by civilian labour, the Navy and Air Force and as many as 3,000 soldiers at a time, who toiled under the most oppressive conditions; in the cold, mud and rain, while in constant danger of air attacks.
The bravery and fortitude of the islanders was formally recognized on 15 April 1942 by the award of the George Cross by King George VI. It was the highest honour that an appreciative British Sovereign could bestow on a community.
On 20 April, 46 Spitfires comprising 601 (County of London) and 603 (City of Edinburgh) Squadrons were flown off the American carrier USS Wasp. After waiting until the aircraft landed, the Germans launched the first in a series of raids against the aerodromes. Luftwaffe aircrew demonstrated their usual skill and daring, and it is due entirely to the courage and determination of Malta's defenders that relatively few aircraft were destroyed on the ground.
Late in April, the 10th Submarine Flotilla quietly left Malta for the safety of Alexandria. The submarines were not to return until the end of July. It was also at this time that reconnaissance aircraft photographed what appeared to be three airfields being levelled in Sicily. Reports indicated that these were intended for gliders for a proposed Axis invasion of Malta. Codenamed Herkules by the Germans, and C3 by the Italians, the operation was planned for that summer. Yet Herkules was destined never to materialise, with Hitler instead giving priority to his offensives in North Africa and Russia. The decision ultimately sealed the fate of Rommel's Afrikakorps, thereby effecting the course of the entire war.
By May, the Regia Aeronautica had begun to reappear over Malta during daylight hours. On the 9th, Operation Bowery culminated in the delivery of 60 Spitfires flown from USS Wasp and HMS Eagle. The new arrivals were quickly introduced to the desperate fighting conditions of Malta as the Germans and Italians timed their attacks to catch the Spitfires as they came in to land. But the defenders were ready and ground crews hurriedly re-armed and refuelled the aircraft, which were immediately taken over by experienced Malta pilots who sat strapped in the cockpits, ready to scramble. Meanwhile, enemy fighters were held at bay by the island's available Hurricanes and Spitfires.
The following day, the minelayer-cruiser HMS Welshman completed a lone run from Gibraltar with supplies and additional RAF ground personnel. The enemy responded with a series of concentrated attacks, countered by the magnificent efforts of the RAF and ground defences, which enabled the Welshman to depart later that evening. Although the odds were still stacked against Malta, the situation had changed to where the defenders could again feel that they were achieving significant results as opposed to simply disrupting the enemy's efforts.
Italy resumes the offensive
By the end of May, developments in the Western Desert and on the Eastern Front again led to the departure of most Sicily-based Luftwaffe units. As in 1941, operations against Malta were left primarily to the Italians and, as before, the reduction of German aircraft in Sicily provided a temporary respite that enabled Malta to strengthen and reorganize its defences. On 18 May, HMS Eagle delivered another 17 Spitfires. Aircraft also arrived for the RAF's strike units. With sufficient Spitfires to hand, 229 Squadron departed for the Middle East late in May. On 3 June, 31 Spitfires took off from HMS Eagle. All but four reached Malta. Six days later, the carrier delivered another 32 aircraft. One of the pilots was Sergeant George Beurling, a Canadian who was subsequently assigned to 249 Squadron. 'Screwball' Beurling, as he became known, would be credited with 26 aircraft destroyed (in addition to two Focke Wolfe 190s claimed over Europe the month before) until being shot down and wounded in October 1942.
In June, convoys Vigorous and Harpoon made a simultaneous attempt to reach Malta. After suffering heavy losses, Vigorous was aborted. With Malta-based aircraft providing air cover, the survivors of Operation Harpoon continued to battle through. Two merchantmen reached the island, as did the Welshman on another unescorted run.
On 21 June, Tobruk changed hands yet again, this time falling to the Deutsches Afrikakorps. Soon after, 601 Squadron departed Malta to join the hard-pressed RAF in North Africa. Meanwhile, II Fliegerkorps was bolstered by Ju 88s and Bf 109s transferred from other sectors, and the Regia Aeronautica commenced a build-up of its forces in Sicily.
July began with a renewed Axis offensive that continued unabated for two weeks. RAF losses were alleviated when the Eagle delivered 31 Spitfires on the 15th, followed on the 21st by 28 more. Subsequently, 1435 Flight, previously rendered ineffective as a Hurricane unit, was reformed as a Spitfire Squadron. 229 Squadron was also reconstituted with pilots and Spitfires of 603 Squadron, which now ceased to operate as a Malta-based unit.
Although the Spitfire was vital to Malta's survival, the overall situation was still critical. On 3 August, the convoy Pedestal left Scotland on the first stage of its journey to the Mediterranean. Pedestal consisted of 14 merchantmen under Royal Navy escort. By the time the convoy reached the beleaguered island, nine cargo vessels and four warships had been sunk. Of the surviving merchantmen, the most famous was undoubtedly the Texaco oil tanker, Ohio. After being disabled during torpedo and bombing attacks, in which one bomber actually crashed onto her deck, the battered ship finally reached Grand Harbour on 15 August, lashed between two destroyers and with another secured to the stern as an emergency rudder.
On 17 August, 32 Spitfires were launched from HMS Furious. Twenty eight reached Malta. During the second half of the month, Allied attacks against Sicily increased with fighter sweeps by Spitfires, and raids by Hurri-bombers flown by RNAS pilots – until being curtailed in September due to fuel shortages. During this period there was a noticeable decline in enemy air activity, but the Axis Command was still very much concerned about the ongoing disruption of Rommel's Mediterranean supply routes, and by October the Luftwaffe had gathered in Sicily a formidable force.
The final Axis air offensive
The final Italo-German offensive against Malta began early on 11 October. Raids were almost invariably carried out by small formations of bombers heavily escorted by fighters. After seven days, during which both sides suffered substantial losses, the enemy changed tactics, resorting instead to attacks by fighters and fighter-bombers. But it was becoming increasingly clear that Hitler had lost the opportunity of ever defeating Malta.
On 29 October, Furious delivered another 29 Spitfires. Meanwhile, in Egypt, a successful Allied offensive at El-Alamein was followed, on 8 November, by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, prompting the diversion of Axis resources from Sicily to these battle fronts. For a while, attacks on Malta continued, but never with the same tenacity as before. The main problem now was the shortage of provisions. Although the situation was alleviated somewhat by the supply runs of individual ships and submarines, it was not until 20 November 1942, that the siege was finally lifted with the arrival of all four merchantmen during Operation Stoneage.
In May 1943, the Afrikakorps surrendered in Tunisia. Two months later, Malta played a prominent role as Allied Headquarters and as a forward air base during Operation Husky – the Allied invasion of Sicily. Italy capitulated on 8 September 1943, and two days later the Italian Naval Fleet began to arrive under escort at Malta, the triumphant occasion prompting a delighted Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham to signal the Admiralty:
'Be pleased to inform their Lordships that the Italian Battle Fleet now lies at anchor under the guns of the Fortress of Malta'.
For the heroic Maltese and all who had defended their islands, it was a fitting tribute.
by Anthony Rogers
Suggested reading
Barnham, Denis, One Man's Window, An illustrated account of ten weeks of war Malta, April 13th, to June 21st, 1942, (William Kimber, 1956)
Holmes, Tony Aircraft of the Aces 18: Hurricane Aces 1939-40 (Osprey 1998)
Johnston, Wing Commander Tim DFC, Tattered Battlements - A Fighter Pilot's Diary, (William Kimber, 1985)
Price, Alfred, Aircraft of the Aces 15: Spitfire Mark V Aces 1941-45, (Osprey, 1997)
Scutts, Jerry, Aircraft of the Aces 2: Bf 109 Aces of North Africa and the Mediterranean,(Osprey, 1997)
Shores, Christopher, Cull, Brian, Malizia, Nicola, Malta: The Hurricane Years 1940-41, (Grub Street, 1987)
Shores, Christopher, Cull, Brian, Malizia, Nicola, Malta: The Spitfire Year 1942, (Grub Street, 1991)
Vella, Philip, Malta: Blitzed But Not Beaten, (Progress Press, 1985.)
Weal John, Combat Aircraft 6: Junkers Ju 87 Stukageschwader of North Africa and the Mediterranean (Osprey 1998)
About the author
Anthony Rogers is the author of Battle Over Malta, Aircraft Losses and Crash Sites, 1940-42, published by Sutton.