The Enemy Within

Extract from Chapter 1: 'In Ancient Times'

In ancient India spies played the role of saboteurs in wartime. In case of invasion, spies were to carry the fight behind enemy lines, maintaining their disguises and falling into the rear of the enemy as it advanced. Disguised as vintners, spies were to generously distribute liquor mixed with the poisonous juice of the madana plant to enemy soldiers. Spies disguised as food vendors were to vie with each other in proclaiming the excellence of their produce, which was of course poisoned. Spies dressed as servants would sell poisoned grass and water to cripple the enemy horses and elephants. Spies disguised as cowherds were to release such animals that would attack horses, mules, camels and buffaloes, having smeared the eyes of those animals with the blood of a musk rat. Huntsmen spies were to release 'cruel beasts' out of traps, while snake charmer spies were to release highly poisonous snakes into the midst of the enemy army. More orthodox methods of subversion included the destruction of stores and crops, burning enemy camps and assassinating enemy generals.

In addition to these acts of guerrilla warfare, spies were seen as an important psychological weapon against enemy morale. To demonstrate their association with the gods, kings were encouraged to visit a temple and publicly hold conversations with the gods, whose voices would be played by hidden spies. For example, a tunnel would be made so a spy could safely crawl into the centre of a sacred fire, then seemingly appear out of the flames and address the ruler as the 'voice' of the god. Other spies hid underwater with primitive breathing apparatus made from animal intestines. They would release burning oil into the water and then suddenly appear themselves, imitating the gods and goddesses of Nágas (snakes). To add to the magical effect they could release smoke from the mouths of their costumes and smear their bodies with special burning oils that did not harm their skin. They were to pose, sharpening their iron swords or spikes, shouting 'We are going to eat the flesh of the king.'

Spies, wearing the skins of bears were to pose as demons, pacing up and down outside an enemy city with smoke pouring out of their mouths, filling the air with 'the horrid noise of antelopes and jackals'. Other spies were to arrange for blood to pour from the statues of gods in temples outside the cities. Anyone coming out to look at the miraculous sight was to be 'beaten to death by others with rods, making the people believe that he was killed by demons'. Even the enemy king was to be duped by spies disguised as soothsayers and astrologers who, having lured him into a private place to hear their predictions, would have him beaten to death by hidden assassins.

Before the arrival of the besieging army, spies disguised as priests would appear before the enemy city blowing their conch shells and beating their drums, proclaiming that a powerful army was coming close behind them. It was hoped that this sudden revelation would be enough to make the enemy army disperse, or at least give up key gates and towers.

Once a siege had begun it was assumed that the king would have spies disguised inside an enemy city. Prior to the siege these would have been sent weapons hidden in the carts of agriculturalists and merchants. Once so armed, the spies in the city were to look for opportunities to support the besieging force outside. They were encouraged to cause fires by tying 'inflammable powder' to the tails of mongooses, monkeys, cats and dogs, which were then sent to pass over the thatched roofs of the houses. Alternatively a 'splinter of fire' could be kept burning in the body of a dried fish that was given to a monkey or a crow, which would go up onto the roofs to eat its meal. Once the animal discovered its food was on fire, it would naturally drop the burning fish, which would fall down onto the thatch.

The ancient Indians perfected the use of female spies and agents, utilizing the glaringly obvious fact that through the lure of sex even the most powerful of men were vulnerable. In particular, women were at the forefront of counter espionage operations. Foreign spies were known to frequent liquor bars, so, operating in the guise of actresses, female spies skilled in linguistics would seek them out, get them drunk and murder them. Poison was the weapon of choice for female spies and there were a number of ingenious methods of delivery. Women posing as food vendors could cause havoc to an enemy army by selling poisoned food, while others stationed in a harem could blow a poisonous powder over a sleeping man, or, less subtly, throw a poisonous snake at him.

Perhaps the most cunning means of delivering a poison was the use of vishakanyas or 'poisonous damsels'. The vishakanyas were female courtesans who from early childhood were given doses of poisonous herbs or the venom of snakes and scorpions. By the time they reached adolescence, although they themselves had become immunized, they were deadly poisonous to those who had contact with them - especially intimate contact. As with the legendary Sumerian female demon Succuba, to whom they have been compared, a night of passion with a vishakanya was likely to be fatal.

We also know that the practice of enciphering messages was known in India at this time. We have seen several examples in Herodotus where messages were concealed, but enciphered messages have a big advantage. Even if the message is intercepted, its true meaning is not revealed. Writing in code appears to be something practised by women, for the Arthasástra mentions that female spies (the mendicant women) were to use 'secret messages' to send intelligence reports back to their controllers. Even the Kama Sutra, which was written in about 500 BC, says that women should be skilled in 'the art of understanding writing in cypher', although it must be said that this was primarily to maintain a veil of secrecy over their love affairs.