Empires Collide

Deprivation, Massacre, and Exile

The civilians living in North America during the French and Indian War were affected by the conflict in many and varied ways. Both French and British colonists on the frontier were fearful for their lives and property during the winters when raiding parties roamed unchecked aiming to cause maximum damage to enemy settlements, while civilians living in the French fortresses were wary of their fate if the fortress fell. Rural populations of the hinterland of the French fortresses like Québec suffered raids and destruction during the sieges in the later years of the war, while the Acadian population suffered expulsion from their homeland.

Civilians in battle
Camp followers often fulfilled valuable roles during campaign, and were susceptible to attack during or after a battle. Braddock sent the camp followers back in 1755, mainly as they were slowing his progress. As the baggage train was destroyed during the battle, his actions probably saved many of the women who were following their husbands into battle. It is difficult to judge how many women and children were killed in the aftermath of battles during the French and Indian War, as they were not included in the official counts and casualty reports.

When the battle was a siege, of course, it was much more difficult to protect the camp followers after the fall or surrender, of a fort or settlement. Even when an agreement laying out the terms of surrender had been made, commanders could not always force all their troops to comply with the terms. The aftermath of Fort William Henry in 1757 is the most infamous incident of this type, when militia and allied American Indians, possibly drunk on captured rum, massacred all the camp followers as they marched out of the fort. Fort William Henry was not only a tragedy, but shaped interaction between the French and British later in the war. Montcalm was always wary during later actions that similar regrettable acts might occur, while for British forces the atrocity provided a reason for raids and reprisals against French civilians whenever possible. This trend was continuing when the British came into contact with large numbers of civilians later in the war as they made inroads on the territory of New France. Concern for the civilians' fate was consequently a deciding factor in the surrender of Louisbourg in 1758.

Deprivations in New France
Many of the settlers of the Thirteen Colonies were not much affected by the war. The colonies not directly threatened by the conflict did not provide many troops, so civilian life was not disrupted by recruitment, food and supplies were not restricted, and the major British towns were not occupied at any point during the war. The frontier colonies like Pennsylvania and Virginia supplied more troops for the war, and during the early period of the war the frontier settlers suffered constant brutal raids. However, it was the civilians of New France who were most adversely affected, though of course experiences differed between communities.

The most widespread deprivation suffered by the civilians of New France was food shortages. The colonists produced enough food for themselves during peacetime, but they could not also supply the 6,000 regular soldiers shipped over during the war. It was planned that the soldiers would therefore be shipped with their own provisions, and that a large supply convoy each year from France would support operations during the season. However, as the war progressed, and the Royal Navy blockade continued, the food supplies slowly dwindled, and the situation hit crisis point in 1757. Although a large flotilla arrived with stores, it was not enough to support both soldiers and civilians. Rationing was imposed to try and stretch the food further. Bad harvests in 1756 and 1757, and a severe winter in 1757-58, worsened the situation, as the population was forced to consume the seed crop of wheat for the following year. Luckily the ships sent from France with replacement seed did reach their destination.

As many of the militia were farmers, the continuation of the war meant a dilemma for the commanders. If the militia were kept out over the harvest, then the yield would be affected, causing food shortages. There was also a good risk that many of the militia would desert during the harvest season to return to their farms. However any allowance made for the harvest could endanger the security of the entire colony. The two conflicting priorities caused an insoluble dilemma.

By 1758, the British blockade, and the shifting priorities of the French authorities, caused New France to be almost totally abandoned, with supplies, soldiers, and currency diverted to other regions. Not only were civilians suffering a lack of food and essential supplies, but as the war turned in favor of the British, the population of New France had to contend with the presence of first the British allied American Indians and rangers, and later British Army regulars. French civilians suffered greatly during the siege of Québec when Wolfe had the countryside around the city destroyed, ruining crops and burning villages. Journal entries by British soldiers give insight into these raids. A sergeant-major from a grenadier company wrote that “on the 20th [August] the Louisbourg Grenadiers began their march down the main land of Quebec, in order to burn and destroy all the houses on that side … [on] the 25th began to destroy the country, burning houses, cutting down corn and the like.” However the following year, there is evidence that some units were ordered not to abuse the population as they marched to Montréal.

Frontier warfare
Warfare along the frontier was brutal, with many settlers taken prisoner or killed by raiding parties. This was not a new phenomenon - raiding and random violence had occurred since the mid 1600s - but the French and Indian War caused a dramatic increase in the efforts to spread fear among the isolated frontier settlements. The development of long raiding by the rangers meant that settlements in the heartland of New France were targeted more and more in the later years of the war.

Civilians captured during raids by American Indians allied to the enemy force could experience very different fates. Often it was a terrifying experience, being dragged away from a burning homestead and dead or dying relatives. As they were marched through the wilderness, settlers or troops might try to rescue them, initiating battles and reprisals during which the captives were often wounded or killed. The treatment that a captive received could often depend on their cooperation. Torture or death might be the outcome for a prisoner determined not to accept anything from their captives or do as bidden. On the other hand, compliant captives, and children, might be adopted by Indian families. Male captives were sometimes treated better than female captives. Males could be adopted by families who had lost warriors in battle, and as such they were of greater value to the American Indian tribes.

If lucky, those taken prisoner might be exchanged and eventually return home. Alternatively, they might settle into their new way of life - there are examples of men remaining in an American Indian village with a family, taking a full part in community life for many years.

Exile
The strategically important area of Acadian Nova Scotia had long been a problem area for the British, as the Acadians were subjects of the British Crown, but only as a result of treaty agreements. They were French speaking, and naturally sympathetic to the French. As well as building forts, including Beauséjour, to defend their interests in the region, the French authorities deliberately stirred Acadian aspirations to independence. Therefore, after the British had captured Fort Beauséjour in 1755, they had to deal with the Acadians as a risk to the security of Nova Scotia. The British solution was an oath of allegiance to the British Crown, which the Acadians were required to adhere to. Many of the population, however, had no desire to swear allegiance, they wished to remain neutral, and exempt from military duty. British commanders reported that their mood changed from neutral to hostile when rumors began to circulate of a French fleet arriving in the Bay of Fundy. The British were in a difficult position. The area needed to be secure, and there were also British land speculators waiting to cash in on the excellent lands occupied by the Acadian farms.

British military and colonial officials met in Halifax, and determined that the Acadians should be forcibly removed from their homes and transported to the Thirteen Colonies. They decided against sending them to Québec or Louisbourg because in either place they would provide valuable reinforcements for the militia. The Acadian villages were emptied and the settlers marshaled toward the Bay of Fundy where, over the course of the fall of 1755, ships arrived from the Thirteen Colonies to transport the people. In the end more than 6,000 men, women, and children were transported. Some Acadians, upon receiving word of the British plan, escaped to Québec. Other groups of people withdrew into the woods of Nova Scotia. Some of the men in these groups carried out a guerrilla campaign against the British over the coming years. Many of the Acadian homes and farms were burned to prevent escaped refugees returning to their homes. The British government also hoped that people would surrender to British authorities once they realized their position was hopeless. Many of the Acadians who were sent to the Thirteen Colonies eventually made their way to Louisiana. Some returned to Acadia after the Treaty of Paris and their descendents continue to live in the same districts today. The story of the Acadians was later made famous in Longfellow's poem Evangeline.

The British continued their policy of evacuation for most of the war. Following the seizure of Louisbourg in 1758, General Amherst decided to round up and transport the civilian populations in and around Louisbourg, as well as the French colonists on Île Saint Jean (Prince Edward Island). All colonists who took up arms were considered prisoners of war and were subsequently transported to Great Britain along with the French soldiers. Colonists who did not take up arms were sent to France. More than 8,000 people were transported from Cape Breton and Île Saint Jean. It seems that Amherst decided on this policy after the killings at Fort William Henry, and felt that such treatment was duly deserved.